Bacterial infections remain a major global health challenge, with disease outcomes determined by the dynamic interplay between bacterial virulent factors and host immune responses. Virulence determinants, including toxins, enzymes, and genetic elements, enable pathogens to invade host tissues, evade immune defences, and modulate host signalling pathways. In parallel, the host immune system responds through a complex network of innate and adaptive mechanisms, primarily mediated by cytokines such as IL-6, IL-17, and IL-23.
Recent evidence highlights that bacterial virulence factors not only promote infection but also actively shape immune responses, influencing inflammation, immune evasion, and disease progression. Dysregulation of this interaction may lead to excessive inflammation, tissue damage, or persistent infection. Moreover, advances in molecular and immunological techniques have provided new insights into host–pathogen interactions, enabling the identification of biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets.
This review provides an updated perspective on the association between bacterial virulence factors and host immune responses, emphasizing mechanistic interactions, clinical implications, and future research directions.